Advances in Biosensor Technologies: Integration of Biological Recognition Elements, Transducer Platforms, and Supporting Technologies for Medical, Environmental, and Food Safety Applications

Abstract

Biosensors have emerged as critical tools across healthcare, environmental monitoring, and food safety, enabling rapid, sensitive, and on-site detection of analytes ranging from small molecules to whole pathogens. At the heart of every biosensor lies a biological recognition element—such as enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, or receptor proteins—that confers molecular specificity. Coupled to these are transducer technologies (electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, thermal) that convert biorecognition events into measurable signals. Advances in fabrication and immobilization techniques (adsorption, covalent bonding, entrapment, cross-linking, microencapsulation) have enhanced stability and reusability. Meanwhile, supporting technologies—microfluidics, nanomaterials, MEMS/NEMS, and computational simulation—have driven miniaturization, sensitivity gains, and multiplexing capabilities. Finally, modern signal processing units, analog-to-digital converters, and wireless modules have enabled real-time data acquisition and remote monitoring. This review synthesizes recent developments across each of these domains, highlights key application areas, and outlines ongoing challenges and future directions for next-generation biosensor platforms.